Soviet-Romanian relations during the interwar period Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina

interwar romania (1920-1940)

the bessarabian question both political , national in nature. according 1897 census, bessarabia, @ time guberniya of russian empire, had population 47.6% moldovans, 19.6% ukrainians, 8% russians, 11.8% jews, 5.3% bulgarians, 3.1% germans, , 2.9% gagauz. these figures showed strong decrease in proportion of moldovans/romanians in comparison census of 1817, conducted shortly after russian empire annexed bessarabia in 1812. according data of census, moldovans/romanians represented 86% of population. decrease seen in census of 1897 due russian policy of settling of other nationalities , russification in territory of bessarabia.

during 1917 russian revolution, national council formed in bessarabia manage province. council, known locally sfatul Țării, initiated several national , social reforms, , on december 2/15 1917 declared moldavian democratic republic autonomous republic within russian federative democratic republic.

the rumcherod, rival council loyal petrograd soviet, formed , late december had gained control on capital, chișinău, , proclaimed sole authority on bessarabia. consent of entente, and, according romanian historiography, on request of sfatul Țării, romanian troops entered bessarabia in january, , february had pushed soviets on dniester. despite later declarations romanian prime minister military occupation made consent of bessarabian government, intervention met protest locals, notably ion inculeț, president of sfatul Țării, , pantelimon erhan, head of provisional moldavian executive. executive authorised badly organised moldavian militia resist romanian advance, although little success. in wake of intervention, soviet russia broke off diplomatic relations romania , confiscated romanian treasure, @ time stored in moscow safekeeping. calm situation, entente representatives in iași issued guarantee presence of romanian army temporary military measure stabilisation of front, without further effects on political life of region. in january 1918, ukraine declared independence russia, leaving bessarabia physically isolated petrograd government, , leading declaration of independence of moldavian republic on january 24/february 5. historians consider declaration made under romanian pressure. following several soviet protests, on february 20/march 5, romanian prime minister, general alexandru averescu, signed treaty soviet representative in odessa, christian rakovsky, provided romanian troops evacuated bessarabia in following 2 months in exchange repatriation of romanian pows held rumcherod. after white army forced soviets withdraw odessa, , german empire agreed romanian annexation of bessarabia in secret agreement (part of buftea peace treaty) on march 5/18, romanian diplomacy repudiated treaty, claiming soviets unable fulfil obligations.

on march 27/april 9, 1918, sfatul Țării voted union of bessarabia romania, conditional upon fulfilment of agrarian reform. there 86 votes union, 3 votes against union, 36 deputies refrained voting, , 13 deputies absent session. vote regarded controversial several historians, including romanian ones such cristina petrescu , sorin alexandrescu. according historian charles king, romanian troops in chișinău, romanian planes circling above meeting hall, , romanian prime minister waiting in foyer, many minority deputies chose not vote. on april 18 georgy chicherin, soviet commissar foreign affairs, sent note of protest against incorporation of bessarabia romania.

in august 1916, entente , neutral romania signed secret convention stipulated romania join war against central powers in exchange several territories of austria-hungary, among them, bukovina. during last part of world war i, national movements of romanians , ukrainians began emerge in province; however, 2 movements had conflicting aims, each seeking unite province national state. thus, on october 25, 1918, ukrainian national committee, gaining upper hand in czernowitz, declared northern bukovina, populated ukrainian majority, part of west ukrainian people s republic. on october 27, romanians followed suit, proclaiming whole region united romania, , calling in romanian troops. romanian intervention established romanian assembly dominant force, , on november 28 congress of romanians, germans, , poles voted unite romania. representatives of ukrainian , jewish populations boycotted congress, , struggle between ethnic factions continued several months.

during russian civil war, soviet governments of ukraine , russia, prompted unrest in bessarabia due romanian occupation, issued joint ultimatum romania on may 1, 1919, demanding withdrawal bessarabia, , next day, christian rakovsky, chairman of ukrainian soviet government, issued ultimatum demanding withdrawal of romanian troops bukovina well. red army pushed romanians on dniester, , besarabian soviet republic proclaimed. ultimatum came in context of hungarian revolution, soviets hoping prevent romanian intervention in hungary. large-scale rebellion in ukraine prevented further soviet advances. soviet russia continue policy of non-recognition of romanian sovereignty on bessarabia, considered romanian-occupied territory, until 1940 events.

during negotiations pre-dating treaty of paris, united states representative asked plebiscite held in bessarabia decide future; however, proposal rejected head of romanian delegation, ion i. c. brătianu, claimed such undertaking allow distribution of bolshevik propaganda in bessarabia , romania. plebiscite requested @ peace conference white russians, rejected again. soviets continue press plebiscite during following decade, dismissed every time romanian government.

romanian sovereignty on bessarabia de jure recognized united kingdom, france, italy, , japan in bessarabian treaty signed on october 28, 1920. soviet russia , ukraine promptly notified romania did not recognize treaty s validity, , did not consider bound it. ultimately, japan failed ratify treaty, , never came force, leaving romania without valid international act justify possession of bessarabia. united states refused discuss territorial changes in former russian empire without participation of russian government. thus, declined recognize incorporation of bessarabia romania, and, unlike position of recognizing independence of baltic states, insisted bessarabia territory under romanian military occupation, , incorporated bessarabian emigration quota russian 1 in 1923. in 1933, u.s. government tacitly included bessarabian emigration quota of romania, act considered de facto recognition romanian diplomacy. however, during world war ii, u.s. argued had never recognized bessarabia s union romania.

in 1924, after failure of tatarbunar uprising, soviet government created moldavian autonomous soviet socialist republic on left bank of dniester river within ukrainian ssr. romanian government saw threat , possible staging ground communist invasion of romania. throughout 1920s, romania considered pillar in cordon sanitaire policy of containment of bolshevik threat, , avoided direct relations soviet union.

on august 27, 1928, both romania , soviet union signed , ratified kellogg-briand pact, renouncing war instrument of national policy. following this, on february 9, 1929, soviet union signed protocol western neighbors, estonia, latvia, poland, , romania, confirming adherence terms of pact. in signing pact, contracting parties agreed condemn war recourse solving conflict, renounce instrument of policy, , conflicts , disputes settled peaceful means. @ time, soviet ambassador, maxim litvinov, made clear neither pact nor protocol meant renunciation of soviet rights on territories occupied romanians . on july 3, 1933, amongst others, romania , soviet union signed london convention definition of aggression, article ii of defined several forms of aggression: there shall recognized aggressor state shall first have committed 1 of following actions: first—a declaration of war on state. second—invasion armed forces of territory of state without declaration of war. (...) , no political, military, economic or other considerations may serve excuse or justification aggression referred in article ii.

in january 1932 in riga, , in september 1932 in geneva, soviet-romanian negotiations held prelude non-aggression treaty, , on june 9, 1934, diplomatic relations established between 2 countries. on july 21, 1936, maxim litvinov , nicolae titulescu, soviet , romanian ministers of foreign affairs, agreed upon draft of mutual assistance pact. interpreted non-aggression treaty, de facto recognize existing soviet-romanian border. protocol stipulated common romanian-soviet action should pre-approved france. in negotiating soviets agreement, titulescu highly criticized romanian far right. protocol signed in september 1936. however, titulescu dismissed in august 1936, leading soviet side declare achieved agreement null , void. subsequently, no further attempts made reach political rapprochement between romania , soviet union. moreover, 1937, litvinov , soviet press revived dormant claim on bessarabia.